Fighting fires is hard work. It is physically and mentally challenging, and having the right knowledge, skills, and abilities is key to safe and successful fireground operations. We’ve got it down to life, incident stabilization and property (or LIP). At the very core of what the fire department is, this seems to work, however a better understanding and working knowledge of the “fire environment” will lend itself to fireground success more often. Some now call it our “battle space.” Call it whatever you wish, but it’s dirty, dangerous and more toxic today than ever, and the more you know and understand it, the better off you’ll be. Over the 288-year history of the American fire service, we’ve always looked for ways to do the job better and, more recently, to help ourselves survive the fireground. Thousands of books, magazine articles and electronic entries have been posted and lectures presented all in the interest of “doing it better.”
- Four Key Elements of the Fireground
- Systematic Size-up Reports for Structure Fires
- Memory Aids Mnemonics and Acronyms: A Company Officer’s Perspective
Tactical Acronyms
We tend to use acronyms because they help us recall things and tick off the checklists in our heads when things are happening quickly. Here are some tactical acronyms that have been studied and used at fire and emergency scenes—some of them old, some more recently developed. None of them are more complete or “more right” than the other. Whatever works for you is what works.
COAL WAS WEALTH: Construction, Occupancy, Apparatus, Life, Water, Auxiliary Appliances, Street Conditions, Weather, Exposures, Area, Location, Time, Height
RECEO VS: Rescue, Exposure, Confine, Extinguish, Overhaul, Ventilate, Salvage (Add “Basement” and create BRECEO/VS)
SLICERS: Size-up, Locate (the Fire), Identify (and control flow path), Cool (the space from safest location), Extinguish (the fire), Rescue, Salvage
REVAS: Rescue, Exposure, Ventilation, Attack, Salvage
LOVERS U: Ladders, Overhaul, Ventilation, Entry (Forcible), Rescue, Search & Utilities
SLAB SAVERS: SLAB-360 determines strategy (Safety Profile, Life Profile, Air Track, Buildings). SAVERS refers to Search and Rescue, Attack, Ventilation, Extension/Exposures, Rapid Intervention, and Salvage.
Note that only one of these (COAL WAS WEALTH) ticks the box for “auxiliary appliances.” This being said, learn all you can about the active and passive built-in fire protection that is placed in buildings. This knowledge will afford you a better, more strategic and tactical firefight. Add safety to the equation, as well.
Changes in Construction and Fire Loads
There has been much discussion about the current fire loads for the past 15-20 years. Dave Dodson told us in his lectures: “Forget what you’ve learned about the fact that fire grows exponentially–2, 4, 8, 16, 32 times, and so on—and that flashover is at 1,400°F. Fires are growing to flashover in a matter of seconds in some cases, and the temperatures are near the 1,900-2,000°F level.” Dodson was right and the science is backing up what he said. The research groups at UL and NIST have shown the fire service that, unequivocally, interior conditions have changed for the worse.
Most of you have probably seen these types of fires firsthand over the past two decades. From the 1990s and earlier, jet-black smoke and deep-orange flames blowing out the windows of a building most often signified “a pour,” a term used for an arson fire. Of course, if the roof was already involved, the asphalt would be contributing to that black-and-orange pattern, but from the windows, it signified something else. The color of the smoke and flames was a result of the hydrocarbons burning off and aiding the Class A combustibles in the structure toward rapid pyrolysis. Once noted, fire officers and firefighters adjusted their tactics to perhaps include a larger diameter hoseline, because there were more Btus and a hotter fire, and the immediate awareness that the fire was set on purpose and not an accident.
Today’s fire loads could be equated to the arson fires of the past because of the greater heat release rate (HRR) of the materials. The average fire today, whether commercial or residential, looks like the old “pour” fires of yesterday. They have lots of hydrocarbon-based materials, and the average commercial building has much more than that. In the past, firefighters were taught that the color of the smoke was some indication of what was on fire: grey smoke was an indication of an incipient fire with cloth or paper involved; brown smoke gave us a hint that dry, structural wood was involved; and, of course, black signified hydrocarbons or the roof, as previously mentioned. Since most fires are showing black smoke off the bat, the color of the smoke is no longer a reliable indicator of arson, but it does demonstrate that our hydrocarbon load is heavier than ever. If you look around your house, these items are easy to spot: TV, computer, furniture coverings, furniture stuffing (polyurethane foam cushions covered with vinyl), laminate counters, laminate cabinets, polyester carpeting and drapes, children’s toys, stereos, CDs in a tower holder, hardwired phones, cell phones, fax machines and printers, among other things. In addition, there’s wood furniture framing, a breakfront or showcase, wood handrails, a bed post or two, a dining room set, clothing, newspapers, and magazines. Don’t forget that this load may be in buildings of lightweight wood construction. Today we see new homes that are larger, have more open-floor plans, vaulted ceilings, “great rooms,” and overall less compartmentation. These so called “McMansions” are also filled with interconnected void spaces that enable a room-and-contents fire to quickly become a true “structure fire.” On top of all this, you may have “hoarders” or, for seasoned fire service veterans, a “Collyer’s Mansion condition.” (Look up the Collyer Brothers of New York online. As a side note, the Fire Department of New York used “Collyer condition” on the radio for many years when confronted with a hoarding condition. They no longer use this terminology and now use a “cluttered condition.”)
Next time you’re in a department store, appliance store, or large supermarket, look around. While your spouse or partner will be annoyed that you’re preplanning and battle planning on your off time, keep in mind what our colleague Jack Murphy has been preaching: “Know Before You Go” (KbyG). As we proceed through this training segment, we’ll be looking at residential, commercial, and heavy commercial or industrial occupancies and structures. We will consider different fire suppression options and ideas. If something seems way out of the box, try it at training. If it looks reasonable and you never performed this task, try it at training.
This proliferation of synthetic materials is occurring at a time when structures are becoming more vulnerable to rapid fire spread and collapse. We now know that engineered lumber fails rapidly as compared to the dimensional “legacy” lumber of the past. Perhaps attempting the extinguishment of these types of fires far exceeds what a 1¾-inch hoseline can deliver. If your fire department standard operating procedure (SOP) doesn’t call for a 2 ½-inch hoseline to be deployed into a commercial occupancy with large open areas containing a heavy fire load, then consider changing your SOP. There are options to use a 2-inch hoseline as well. Some large urban departments leave it to the discretion of the first-in officer to stretch a 1 ¾-, 2-, or a 2 ½-inch line, depending on the size and severity of the fire upon arrival. You may even need to do this in a wide-open McMansion. Fire loads have changed, and we must make adjustments in the interest of community fire protection and the safety of our personnel.
Tactical Options Based on Current Conditions
Thanks to scientific and hands-on research conducted by UL and NIST, we now know that we can’t push fire with a water line, so placing a line in a window will achieve knockdown. Keep in mind, however, that their research shows the use of open fog lines in most open patterns of various degrees will introduce some air and block ventilation. Use a solid bore, steep angle, banked off the ceiling, and you’re creating a high flow sprinkler head.
Can we use dry chemical inside a commercial building, or even a dwelling fire? Studies at UL and NIST tell us that cooling the room down even with today’s heavy hydrocarbon interior finishes and furnishings is the way to go, so first considerations are a hoseline or, when waiting for line deployment, a 2 ½-gallon water extinguisher. With these two options delayed, remember that when using a multi-purpose (ABC) unit, the “A” part of the dry chemical will give the fire a slap. The “BC” part will give it a punch, particularly for those pesky plastics and hydrocarbons we’ve been discussing. You will get some knockdown right away and will buy time for occupant escape and fire department entry.
I’m not suggesting that you tie down the handle and lob dry chemical units into the windows of buildings like the old fire grenades, but it’s okay to get creative. Don’t forget that you won’t get any cooling from the dry chemical, but you will get a chemical reaction and an interruption at the fourth side of the fire tetrahedron (the continuing-chain reaction side) to stop or slow the fire.
Consider this option when responding to a heavy commercial or industrial fire. Heavy industrial occupancies rely on trained employees using portable fire extinguishers to knock down or extinguish fires prior to the arrival of the fire department. In my 20 years in this type of setting, we put out hundreds of fires using portables, mostly by the closest trained employee. Why not take page from this book? In these types of facilities, dry chemical units are hanging virtually everywhere. The same issue applies with restaurants. Depending on what they are cooking, most codes nationwide will require National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 96 and NFPA 17A, installations of smoke extraction system for “grease laden vapors” and fixed fire suppression systems. These systems are pre-engineered and work well when maintained. If the rangehood suppression system has not activated upon your arrival at a commercial kitchen fire, pull the manual pull station and discharge the system. It’s what the kitchen staff should have done prior to your arrival. There should also be Class K (Kitchen) wet chemical extinguishers hanging on the walls. Yet another option.
Can we use class B foam in a structure when we know that most of the building is full of hydrocarbons or solid petroleum? Again, water is our main cooling agent, and from the outside of the structure, FSRI recommends a solid stream at a 70° angle with no movement (swirling, etc.). However, consider foam for a heavy commercial or industrial fire with heavy fire loads and hydrocarbons. We have trained on and demonstrated that you can pump finished foam in conventional sprinkler systems and achieve knock down and extinguishment. As well, we’ve put foam into standpipe systems and have delivered it to the upper stories of a building. Drill and train in order to become proficient in foam operations, whether it’s a proportioner with the pick-up tube and foam pail in the middle of it or your apparatus foam cell with a preconnected line. There are different foam systems requiring different size hoselines and equipment. Make sure your members are well versed on what to do and how to do it. If your apparatus has a built-in foam cell, it usually takes only the turn of a valve or the closing of a gate to switch between water and foam production. If you use your foam wisely, you’ll make it work but test and validate this at the fire academy or training ground. Also, remember that foam will create a slippery floor condition, so be prepared for that as well.
Tactical Concepts Summary
For commercial buildings:
- Consider a 2½-inch line with a smooth bore nozzle, especially in large, open spaces. Some departments are using 2-inch lines, as well, and opt for a 1¾-inch line for small fires. Get and use what best suits your department.
- Consider a foam line first instead of (or in addition to) water inside a structure.
- Consider dry chemical for exterior or interior rapid knockdown, especially in heavy commercial or industrial settings.
- Consider foam for exterior or interior rapid knockdown.
- Consider pumping finished foam solution into sprinkler system fire department connections (FDCs).
- Consider pumping finished foam solution into standpipe system FDCs.
For residential buildings:
- Consider a larger diameter line for large, open floor plan homes or heavy clutter conditions.
- Consider foam or dry chemical as an option in heavy fire load conditions, but remember that cooling is the key.
Start thinking about using alternate extinguishing media on stubborn, hot, hydrocarbon-loaded fires with heavy fire loads. It’s all about knockdown, confinement, containment, getting the people out, and the safety of our personnel. Work smarter, not harder, and get everyone home after the fire.
Sample Commercial First-Due Preplan or Quick Action Plan (QAP)
Address: 100 Main Street
Business: Feldman’s Furniture Outlet
Building: 100 x 300
Hydrant: IFO building main entrance
Sprinklers: YES
FDC: Corner of Walk and Don’t Walk (A/D corner)
First Due: Foam line to the sprinkler system for knockdown. (Start water or switch to foam through the sprinklers if the fire is deep-seated.)
2 ½-inch hoseline in the door for mop-up and final extinguishment.
SAFETY NOTE: Shut sprinklers upon the express order of the incident commander (IC)
NOTE: Shutting sprinklers must be a coordinated activity and be done only by order of the IC. There are many case histories that show a premature closing of sprinkler valves which resulted in a large-loss fire–e.g., General Motors Transmission Plant in Livonia, Michigan, in 1953. For some unexplained reason, a security guard shut the sprinklers even before the fire department arrived and burned the plant down, resulting in a $100 million loss. Fighting fires in sprinklered buildings requires a different strategy.
Mutual Aid: Transmit a second alarm.
Add whatever else you think is important. Not all of your prefire plans may look like this. Consider including foam or even the aforementioned dry chemical. Include your target hazards and your high-rise residential buildings and go from there.
Consider battle planning for your large target hazards. Not just a simple prefire plan but an actual battle plan—exactly what you need to do when we get there.
As an example:
- What fire flow will we need? How many lines? What size?
- How can the internal fixed protection work to our advantage?
- Can or should we pump foam into the sprinkler or standpipe system?
- How many alarms do we need upon discovering a working fire?
- Add to this list whatever applies to your department and its operation.
The modern fire environment has changed, and fire departments must be prepared to adapt to the new challenges it presents. Ensure your tactical concepts are up to date and that your firefighters are trained to apply those tactics effectively.
Special thanks to Dave Rhodes and Mike Ciampo for a technical discussion of these concepts and options and for their final review of this article.
Ron Kanterman is a 49-year veteran of the fire service and the retired Chief of the Wilton (CT) Fire Department. He is currently the the FDNY Bureau of Fire Prevention Executive Inspector and is charged with education and professional development for the 650-member bureau. He holds a bachelor’s and two master’s degrees and has been teaching at two- and four-years colleges for the past 35 years. He’s been instructing at FDIC for 25 years. He is the author of Fire Officer’s Guide to Occupational Safety and Health and Fire Engineering’s Handbook for Hazardous Materials Response, and has been a Fire Engineering author 35 years. He keeps “Chief Kanterman’s Journal” on the FE website and is a podcast host partner on “The Back Step Boys.” Kanterman has been affiliated with the National Fallen Firefighters Foundation for 25 years and recently stepped aside as the Memorial Weekend Incident Commander after seven years at that post. He is also an avid supporter of the Firefighter Cancer Support Network.
