BY JOHN FLYNN
The success of an aggressive interior attack in a structure fire depends largely on the effectiveness of roof operations. Primary roof operations consist of size-up, roof access, and ventilation of natural (preexisting) openings. Accomplishing these tasks quickly and efficiently will channel the products of combustion up and out of the building, reducing heat and increasing visibility within. It is not always necessary to cut an opening in the roof to obtain these benefits, and that is not normally a part of primary roof operations.
First, let’s review the definition of some basic terms so we will all be speaking the same language.
Bulkhead. A partitioned enclosure at the top of a stairway fitted with a door to provide access from the stairway to the roof.
Gooseneck ladder. The part of a fire escape ladder that extends up from the top fire escape balcony and curves back over the edge of the roof. Many fire escapes do not have goosenecks. The presence of a front fire escape without a gooseneck, however, is often an indication that there is also a rear or side fire escape that does have a gooseneck.
Impact load. A force applied to a structure suddenly that is much greater than the actual weight of the load on the building. This greatly increases the likelihood of a collapse, compared with applying the load slowly and evenly.
Scuttle. An opening in the roof or ceiling of a residential building that provides access to the roof or attic. It may be covered with only a pressure-fitted hatch or more securely nailed down or tarred over.
Size-up. Obtaining as much information as possible concerning the problem at hand, which may be helpful in determining a course of action.
Skylight. An opening in the roof of a building covered with translucent or transparent panes designed to admit sunlight to the area below.
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 (2) Bulkhead enclosure with open bulkhead door. |
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SIZE-UP
Every roof operation should begin with a thorough size-up, which should begin with prefire plans, not just on arrival. Roof team members should consider the following factors in fire building size-up before commencing operations. Size-up is an ongoing process, so many of these factors are subject to change and must be constantly reevaluated during operations.
Location of fire and smoke. How will they affect your getting to the roof and, once there, how much time (if any) will you have to accomplish your objectives? Have the windows self-vented prior to arrival? Does it appear that after initial venting, cutting a hole or holes will be necessary?
Building type. All buildings can be classified as one of five different construction types: (1) noncombustible, (2) fire resistive, (3) ordinary, (4) heavy timber, and (5) wood frame. Knowing the type and characteristics of the building construction on which the roof team members are operating has a significant impact on determining a course of action. [See National Fire Protection Association 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction (1995 edition), for a description of building construction types.]
Height and area of building. Is the roof within the reach of your aerial device or a ground ladder? Is it irregularly shaped? (See photo 1.)
Life hazard. Are there any reports of people trapped? Are ladder rescues necessary, or are the fire escapes “crowded”? Either situation may delay you in reaching the roof or affect the route you choose in getting there. Is this a vacant building? If so, you must take a more cautious approach. However, realize that if an interior attack has begun, the building is not truly vacant (it is filled with firefighters), and roof ventilation should proceed when feasible.
Fire escapes. Where are they located? What is their condition? Are gooseneck ladders present?
Exposures. How close are they to the fire building? Are they adjoining? How high are they? What is the construction type and condition?
Overhead power lines. Where are these, and will they affect operations or impede roof access?
Other hazards. These could include the presence of razor wire, guard dogs, or hazardous materials such as combustible liquid containers.
Weather conditions. How will wind, snow, ice, or rain affect roof operations? Wind conditions are particularly important to consider prior to initiating ventilation.
Time of day. Civilian life hazard generally will be greater at night, and darkness may also make walking on the roof more dangerous.
Condition of roof. Is it a viable (safe) operating platform? Has it been compromised by age, weather, or fire conditions to a point where roof operations are not viable?
Lightweight building construction. This type of construction is becoming more and more common. Be aware that many of today’s buildings that incorporate lightweight construction materials and methods are much more susceptible to early collapse and may collapse without warning. You can’t judge the “burn time” of one of these roofs by the rules and warning signs used in the past but that still apply to buildings erected using more “old fashioned” methods. This article is not a building construction text. However, to operate safely on the roof at any type of structure fire, you must have the knowledge and experience required to identify the construction type of the building and assess how the building will behave under fire conditions.
 (3) Skylight (left); scuttle hatch (right). |
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 (4) Attaching a rope to a halligan without a welded loop. First, tie a clove hitch with overhand safety at the adz end of the halligan. |
 (5) Next, make a bend around the adz end and a half-hitch just below the fork. |
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TOOLS
Personnel should bring with them the following tools for roof operations:
- Full personal protective equipment (PPE) with SCBA.
- Handlights.
- Halligan and flathead ax. The flathead ax is preferable to the pickhead ax, since the flat side can be used as a mallet to strike the halligan when forcing bulkhead doors. Also, it can be used to strike cut roof sections when “hinging” them on rafters. It is not necessary to use a pickhead ax for cutting a flat roof; the power saw should be used for this task.
- Hook(s). The eight-foot hook is generally recommended for roof operations, since it is a better length than the six-foot hook for pulling back cut roof material, pushing down ceilings, and reaching down to vent windows.
- Utility rope. This is used to haul tools or hoseline to the roof or to tie off the halligan to vent windows below.
- Power saw.
- Life rope.
ROOF ACCESS AND EGRESS
Identify alternate methods of getting to and exiting from the roof, other than using the aerial or tower ladder. Often, there is a faster or easier way of getting to the roof. Also, at times when the aerial device is used to access the roof, the following options provide secondary means of evacuating the roof in situations in which the aerial device has been cut off by smoke or fire:
- Adjoining buildings of equal height.
- Fire escape with gooseneck ladder (do not use a gooseneck ladder if your size-up indicates a possibility of being caught by fire vent-ing from a window below).
- Ground ladders.
Other options for roof access/ egress that have a higher degree of risk and should be considered only when no other options are available include the following:
- “Bridging” across an alleyway with a ground ladder.
- Using a ground ladder to go up to or down to the roof from an adjoining building of a different height.
- Life rope (obviously a last resort, but it beats jumping).
Interior stairs or scuttle hatches should not be used to access the roof unless they are in a separate wing that is remote from the fire and are configured such that there is no danger of being “caught” above a venting fire. Similarly, except in an extreme emergency, do not use interior stairs to descend from the roof unless you are certain that the fire is under control and you will not be overcome by fire or smoke in this “chimney.”
Before stepping onto the roof, assess the condition of the roof, as noted above in size-up. When visibility is limited because of smoke or darkness, you must not step on the roof without first probing it with a tool. Also, avoid jumping on the roof—this creates an impact load, which could cause a localized collapse, thereby plunging members to the floor below.
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ROOF OPERATIONS
1. Identify secondary egress. Before roof operations begin, identify a secondary means of getting off the roof should the primary means of egress (the way you got there) be cut off by fire or smoke. Conditions change quickly on the roof. If there is only one way off the roof (the way you got there), operate with that always in mind, and don’t get cut off.
2. “Run the rim.” Walk (don’t run) around the roof perimeter, looking over the sides for the location of fire, smoke, and persons trapped at windows. If you can’t clearly see where you are about to step because of smoke or darkness, probe first with a tool, or crawl! Many roofs are not the same depth from front to back or may have open air or light shafts or holes from fire or poor maintenance. Experienced firefighters have been killed and seriously injured by walking off roofs or walking into holes or shafts. Check for air and light shafts that are not visible from the street, and examine them for fire, smoke, or persons trapped. Relay any findings, negative or positive, to the incident commander.
3. Vent skylights. If there is a skylight over the main stairwell, vent it immediately. Don’t wait for a hoseline to be stretched. It is crucial to create this vertical vent as soon as possible. This reduces the “mushrooming” effect on the upper floors, increasing greatly the survivability of all those in the building—firefighters and civilians alike.
When venting a glass skylight, first inform all companies in the building by radio of your intentions (you don’t need to wait for a response). Next, break one or two panes of glass, and pause briefly. Firefighters below who may not have heard the radio will be made aware of what is happening. They should then move up against the wall, take their hands off the banister and look neither up nor down. Mov-ing against the wall protects them from the broken glass, which will fall nearby without striking them; keeping their heads level will allow the helmet to protect them from falling glass, without exposing their faces or necks.
You can now remove all glass in the skylight. As soon as the glass has been completely removed, probe with a hook to make sure that the skylight is not boarded up from underneath. Don’t assume that because smoke is seen emanating from the now-opened skylight that it is coming directly from the stairs and main hallway. The skylight may have been boarded up with plywood, gypsum board, or other material; the smoke may be coming from the cockloft. Finally, inform the incident commander that the skylight has been vented, and describe the volume of smoke or fire emanating from it.
Many authorities recommend removing the entire skylight structure instead of just breaking the glass panes. Generally, this is too time-consuming for fires with a known or suspected life hazard, but it is a good option for skylights that have lexan or plexiglass panes instead of glass or are boarded up. It is also an option for fires that have been controlled and the life hazard accounted for but that still require vertical ventilation and you want to keep damage to a minimum.
To remove the entire skylight, pry the flashing loose on three sides of the skylight and hinge it on the fourth side, or pry it loose on all four sides and completely remove it.
4. Bulkhead doors. Open all bulkhead doors for additional ventilation and to check for trapped occupants (photo 2). If there is no skylight over the main stairwell, do this first. Occasionally, civilians will attempt to escape to the roof and will be trapped inside a locked bulkhead door. To open a bulkhead door, first try before you pry—it probably will be locked, but it may not be. If it is locked, use standard forcible entry techniques for outward swinging doors, using a halligan and a flathead ax. If a flathead ax or a second firefighter is not immediately available, there is often enough room between the bottom of the door and the sill to slip the adz end of the halligan and begin to pry open the door. You can then get a purchase with your hook and “leapfrog” the halligan up closer to the lock to force it. If the hinges are exposed, it may be easier to attack them first, since these doors are often chained from inside (illegally) as well as locked. Once you overcome the lock, it may be difficult to reach this chain through a smoke condition and cut it, especially without a bolt cutter or metal cutting saw.
Once you have fully opened the door, remove the top hinge so that it is impossible for the door to close during operations, causing smoke and heat to suddenly bank down on members operating inside. Next, always probe inside the door for overcome occupants. Do not descend the stairs, since it is now a chimney through which the deadly products of combustion will be rising. Finally, inform the incident commander that the bulkhead door or doors have been opened, and describe the volume of fire or smoke venting.
For bulkheads with an attached skylight, vent both the door and the skylight. Vent the door first; check inside for overcome civilians; then, if necessary, remove the bulkhead door entirely and use it as a ramp to reach the skylight panes and vent them. This will also ensure that the door does not self-close.
5. Scuttle hatches. If there is a scuttle hatch over the fire, pry it open to provide an additional vertical vent (photo 3). If you cannot easily pry it or break it open, cut it open with the saw. Cut along the inside edge of the raised part of the framing. In the case of rear porch fires with a scuttle hatch above the porches, opening this scuttle hatch takes on added importance. Doing so may significantly delay the lateral fire spread and confine it to the rear porch area long enough to position hoselines for extinguishment.
Remember, however, that wooden rear porches may be structurally unsound, especially under fire conditions, and may not support your weight. Do not stand on the rear porch roof if you are in doubt about this. Attempt to open such a scuttle from the main roof. Also, be wary of opening a scuttle hatch remote from the fire location within the building/cockloft, since this may draw the fire toward this fresh supply of oxygen.
7. Horizontal ventilation. Consider providing horizontal (window) ventilation if necessary and appropriate. Before doing so, however, consider the following factors. Venting windows will provide oxygen (fuel) to the fire, thus increasing its intensity. Unlike skylights and bulkheads, only vent windows after communicating with the inside team. You must be certain that the engine company is advancing a charged hoseline on the fire and that the windows in question are in front of, not behind, the advancing interior companies. Also, make certain that strong winds are not blowing in the direction of the windows to be vented, which may cause the fire to “blow up” and overwhelm the hoseline team. All too often, well-intentioned but mistaken firefighters on the exterior of a fire building vent windows without taking into account the above factors. This not only extends the fire but occasionally causes injuries to firefighters and civilians inside the building.
To vent windows from the roof at top-floor fires, simply reach down with a hook and break the windows. Keep your head as far back as possible to protect yourself from the possibility of venting fire. For floors below the top floor, securely tie a halligan to your utility rope (photos 4, 5), lower the rope so that the halligan is even with the bottom half of the window in question, and step on the rope at that point. Then pull the halligan up to the roof, continue standing on the rope at the point that had previously been marked, and throw the halligan away from the building. It will pendulum down into the window with enough force to break it. Continue this process until the window glass and screens are completely removed. Many departments have welded loops to their halligans to facilitate this operation. It provides an easier spot to tie the knot or, better yet, a carabiner that can be left on the end of the utility rope and clipped onto this welded loop (photo 6).
Another option for windows located on or adjacent to a fire escape landing is to descend the gooseneck ladder (if present) to that point and vent the windows from there. This has one major disadvantage: You probably will not be able to return to the roof because of the heat and smoke that will be venting from the window or windows you have just broken. However, it may provide the option of entering for a quick search in the area toward which the handline soon will be pushing the products of combustion. Persons not removed from this area before the hoseline crew reaches them will have a slim chance of survival. The decision of whether to enter from this point for a search can be made only by experienced members on a case-by-case basis after reviewing risk/benefit factors known to them at that time.
Your initial roof operations are now concluded. You will need to decide whether or not “cutting” the roof will be necessary and, if so, how to do it.
Thanks to Captain Doug Leihbacher and the members of Rescue 1 and Ladder 71 of the Yonkers (NY) Fire Department for their assistance in preparing this article.
JOHN FLYNN is a captain and 15-year veteran of the Yonkers (NY) Fire Department, assigned to Rescue 1, the heavy rescue and haz-mat unit. He is an adjunct technical rescue instructor with the New York State Fire Academy and served as an instructor with the Yonkers Fire Department Probationary Firefighters School.
